Lesson 7: Rhetorical Artifacts

Sun, 14 Sep 2025 21:00:04 +0000

Posted by: Keren Wang

Before you start this lesson, please READ: Berger, Arthur Asa. 2024. Media and Communication Research Methods: An Introduction to Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. 3rd ed. Chapter 4, “Rhetorical Analysis.” Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071939017.

1. Overview

What do you think of when you hear the word “artifact”? In rhetorical scholarship, the term “artifact” is not limited to historical objects or museum pieces. Instead, it encompasses various texts, speeches, symbolic objects, and events produced by humans.

In communication research, one key difference between rhetorical and critical methods and other qualitative research methods is that, while qualitative methods such as interviews, observations, and focus group studies revolve around studying human subjects, rhetorical scholars analyze rhetorical artifacts, or “texts” that have already been produced.

MEDIA & VIOLENCE - A Transnational Perspective

Mon, 14 Apr 2025 18:23:19 +0000

Lesson Module by Keren Wang, updated 4 Nov 2025.

This lesson module examines the contested and ambivalent relationship between media and violence from historical and transnational perspectives.

1. Violence as Ritual & Power: Historical and Global Perspectives

Let's open this session with a reference from Greek mythology: consider the telltale of Prometheus, whose theft of fire from the Olympian gods for humanity’s benefit inadvertently brought both civilization and destruction. Like Prometheus’s fire, the development of media technology simultaneously brings enlightenment and cataclysm.

1.1 Rhetorical Artifacts and Human Sacrifice

The history of the development of writing technology overlaps with the history of war propaganda and human sacrifice.^[1] As early as the Narmer Palette, one of the earliest hieroglyphic artifacts ever found from circa 3200 BCE depicting scenes of conquest and violence:

Similarly, during the height of the Chinese Bronze Age, also known as the Shang dynasty (c. 1250–1046 BC) produced ritual bronze artifacts at monumental proportions -- such as the 833 kg (1,836 lbs) Houmuwu Ding -- one of the heaviest bronze vessel from the ancient world -- and the 13-foot (3.96 m) tall Sanxingdui bronze tree (c. 1200 BC):

Lesson on Data Visualization and its Misuses

Tue, 12 Nov 2024 01:05:28 +0000

Posted by Keren Wang, FA 2024

In this session, we aim to achieve several key learning objectives:

Understand the fundamental principles of framing and visual rhetoric, exploring how they shape the design and interpretation of data visualizations.
Examine the art of designing and manipulating graphic systems of signs that disclose or conceal specific quantitative or qualitative information.
Identify common types of data visualizations, such as bar charts, pie charts, line graphs, and network graphs, along with their appropriate applications.
Recognize the advantages and potential misuses of data visualizations, including manipulative techniques like framing and scaling distortions.
Critically analyze real and hypothetical examples to detect misleading or biased visual representations.
Develop best practices for creating clear, honest, and effective data visualizations, ensuring accuracy and ethical integrity.

Photography and Visual Rhetoric

To truly grasp the fundamental principles and perils of data visualization, we must journey back to the birth of photography and photojournalism. When photography was first employed in news reporting, it carried an inherent demand for credibility. Unlike paintings or sketches, photographs were perceived as unfiltered, unmediated representations of reality. Ironically, as our discussion will reveal, even from its inception, photojournalism was subject to rhetorical manipulation.

Argumentation - Digital Literacy in Argumentation

Sun, 20 Oct 2024 17:59:23 +0000

Digital Literacy in Argumentation

SCOM 2710 Argumentation Lesson, Posted by Keren Wang, updated 2024

Overview

This week we will be focusing on understanding and evaluating evidence, a crucial aspect of constructing persuasive arguments. It explains how evidence interacts with values, and presents general tests for assessing the quality of evidence. We will also be learning how to locate and evaluate various sources of evidence, guiding you on choosing reliable information from books, periodicals, websites, and more. The chapter emphasizes the importance of digital literacy and critical evaluation of different types of sources.

Media Bias Chart published by Ad Fontes Media, 2020. Fact-checking always lags behind the emergence of new biased sources of information.

Understanding Evidence

Evidence and Values

Evidence is always interpreted through personal and cultural values. Here are some examples of how values shape our interpretation of evidence:

Artificial Intelligence in Employment: Evidence showing that AI can improve productivity and efficiency is interpreted by some as a positive development for economic growth, whereas others see it as a threat to jobs, fearing mass unemployment and widening economic inequality.
Genetic Editing (CRISPR): Evidence about the successful application of CRISPR to edit genes in humans can be seen as a revolutionary medical advancement that will eliminate hereditary diseases, or as a dangerous intervention with unknown ethical and social consequences.
Universal Basic Income (UBI): Evidence from trials of Universal Basic Income might show improvements in mental health and poverty reduction, which is interpreted positively by proponents as proof of the policy’s benefits. However, others might see it as fostering a culture of dependency or as economically unviable, depending on their economic values.
Police Surveillance Technology: Evidence supporting the use of facial recognition and other surveillance technology to improve public safety can be seen as a way to effectively reduce crime. On the other hand, it is interpreted by others as a serious threat to privacy and civil liberties, especially in communities that may be disproportionately targeted.
Vaccination and Public Health: Evidence showing the efficacy of mandatory vaccination for school children may be interpreted as essential for public safety by some individuals, while others may view it as intrusive government overreach or distrust the pharmaceutical industry.

Evidence that suggests a major breakthrough in general artificial intelligence may be seen either as a major technological advancement or as ethically problematic depending on the individual's values.

General Tests of Evidence

Herrick introduces seven general tests of evidence that can help evaluate whether evidence used in an argument is reliable, credible, and sufficient to support a conclusion. These tests provide a comprehensive approach to assessing the quality of evidence. Here’s a detailed breakdown:

Accessibility: Is the Evidence Available?Evidence that is accessible and open to scrutiny is generally considered more reliable.Example: A public health official cites the number of COVID-19 cases reported by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). This evidence is accessible because the CDC publishes its data on a website that anyone can visit and verify.Counterexample: Someone claims that the government has "secret documents" showing proof of extraterrestrial contact. Since these alleged documents are not accessible for review, the claim fails the test of accessibility.
Credibility: Is the Source of the Evidence Reliable?This can depend on the reputation of the author or organization providing the evidence, as well as whether the source has the appropriate credentials or expertise.Example: A research paper on the safety of vaccines authored by a team of immunologists and published in The New England Journal of Medicine is credible due to the expertise of the authors and the reputation of the journal.Counterexample: A claim about vaccine dangers coming from an anonymous social media post lacks credibility because the author’s qualifications are unknown, and the post does not have any verifiable authority.
Internal Consistency: Does the Evidence Contradict Itself?Evidence should not contradict itself. If evidence is self-contradictory, it weakens the argument and creates doubt regarding its reliability.Example: A government report on unemployment must consistently present the same statistics throughout the report. If one section states an unemployment rate of 6% and another section states 8% without clarification, the evidence lacks internal consistency.
External Consistency: Does the Evidence Contradict Other Evidence?Evidence that sharply contradicts most other reputable evidence is often seen as unreliable.Example: A study on climate change that finds rising global temperatures should align with the majority of climate research from other scientific bodies such as NASA, the IPCC, and NOAA.
Recency: Is the Evidence Up to Date?Evidence that has been superseded by more recent findings may no longer be applicable.Example: Citing a 2023 meta-analysis on the effectiveness of renewable energy technologies is preferable to citing a study from 2001, as the newer study will have taken into account technological advancements.
Relevance: Does the Evidence Bear on the Conclusion?Evidence that does not directly relate to the argument is not helpful.Example: If a speaker argues for increasing the minimum wage, citing research that shows increased minimum wages boost consumer spending is relevant because it directly supports the argument.
Adequacy: Is the Evidence Sufficient to Support Its Claim?Adequate evidence means having enough quality evidence to convincingly support the claim being made.Example: If you are trying to prove that sugary drinks contribute to obesity, providing multiple studies from different credible sources, statistics on consumption rates, and expert testimony would collectively provide adequate evidence to support your claim.

Sources of Evidence

Herrick, Chapter 7 outlines different types of sources for evidence and their respective strengths and limitations:

Periodicals: These include scholarly journals, special-interest magazines, and news/commentary publications. Scholarly journals are considered the most reliable due to their rigorous editorial and peer-review process.
- Scholarly journals are considered the gold standard due to their peer-review process, while special-interest publications and news magazines can offer accessible information but with less depth and more bias. They can be easily accessed via university libraries.
Books: Books can be useful sources of in-depth information, but it is important to consider the author's credentials, publication date, and the type of publisher.
Documentaries: These can offer reliable insights but may be influenced by commercial interests or biases.
The Internet: Offers vast information, but requires critical assessment for credibility. Websites with recognizable authors and credible organizations are generally more reliable. Digital literacy has become an essential skill for identifying and evaluating online sources.

Digital Literacy

Digital Literacy refers to the ability to effectively navigate, evaluate, and utilize online information. Digital literacy is more than simply being able to use technology; it is about understanding how to critically evaluate the veracity and quality of digital content and its sources. Key aspects of digital literacy include:

Critical Evaluation of Sources: Not all websites are created equal, and digital literacy involves determining whether an online source is credible, up-to-date, and relevant. It also requires recognizing the purpose of the content—whether it aims to inform, persuade, entertain, or mislead.
Understanding Bias and Intent: It is important to understand the motives behind the creation of digital content. Websites often have particular political, social, or commercial agendas, and digital literacy involves identifying these biases. For example, a blog promoting dietary supplements might not be objective if it’s sponsored by a company that sells such products.
Verification of Facts: Digital literacy requires cross-referencing information found online with multiple reliable sources. This helps verify facts and avoid falling for misinformation or “fake news.” For instance, a claim about a health benefit found on social media should be verified through medical publications or government health websites.
Awareness of Digital Manipulation: The internet includes not only text but also images, videos, and audio clips, many of which may be digitally altered. Digital literacy involves assessing whether visual or multimedia evidence has been manipulated to present a biased narrative.
Navigating Information Overload: The sheer volume of information available online can be overwhelming. Being digitally literate means knowing how to sift through large amounts of data to find high-quality, relevant information. This involves using effective search terms, recognizing authoritative domains (e.g., “.gov” or “.edu”), and understanding how search engine algorithms may prioritize certain content.
Digital Security and Privacy: Digital literacy also includes understanding how to protect one's privacy online and recognizing secure websites. For example, a digitally literate individual would know to look for “https://” at the beginning of a URL as an indicator of a secure website.

Example of Digital Literacy in Practice: Suppose you are researching the benefits of electric vehicles (EVs). A digitally literate approach would involve consulting a mix of sources, including reputable news organizations (e.g., Associated Press, Reuters), trusted independent technical professional organizations or public agencies (e.g., IEEE, European Alternative Fuels Observatory), and peer-reviewed journals (Energies, Transport Reviews, Journal of Power Sources). It would also involve recognizing potential biases—such as an oil company-funded blog questioning the sustainability of EVs.

Evaluating Websites

Evaluating the credibility of websites is a critical component of digital literacy. The internet contains valuable information but also a lot of misleading or false content. Here are key considerations for evaluating websites:

Key Considerations for Evaluating Websites

Language and Content Quality:
- Credible websites typically use a moderate and professional tone. They avoid extreme or sensational language that appeals to emotions rather than presenting facts.
- Grammatical accuracy and proper punctuation are often indicators of a professional and reliable website. Sites riddled with typos or casual language may lack reliability.
- Fact-based Content: Reliable websites provide references, links to original studies, or citations to support their claims.
- Example: A health website like Mayo Clinic (www.mayoclinic.org) provides detailed health information, cites medical sources, and avoids sensational claims about treatments.
Authority of the Site Creator:
- Consider who created the website. Recognized authorities (e.g., universities, government institutions, established news organizations) provide credible content.
- Look for the author’s credentials. An article on medical treatments should ideally be authored by a healthcare professional or medical researcher, with appropriate qualifications listed.
- Example: The American Medical Association’s website (www.ama-assn.org) is a trustworthy source for medical information because it is maintained by a reputable professional organization.
External Consistency:
- External consistency is about comparing the information on the site with other reliable sources. A credible website should not present claims that contradict established knowledge.
- Cross-referencing helps determine if the information presented aligns with mainstream consensus or is a fringe theory.
- Example: If a website claims that climate change is not occurring, a comparison with multiple authoritative scientific sources (e.g., NASA, NOAA, IPCC) may reveal that the claim lacks external consistency and therefore credibility.
Objectivity and Bias:
- Recognize the potential bias or purpose of a website. Websites created to sell a product, promote a political agenda, or advocate for a specific cause may present information in a skewed manner.
- Lobbying organizations, for example, may present one-sided information to persuade rather than to inform.
- Example: Greenpeace’s website (www.greenpeace.org) provides valuable information on environmental issues but is also advocating for specific policy changes. It is important to note that the content is aimed at activism and may include a biased perspective.
Currency of Information:
- Up-to-date content is crucial, especially for topics like technology, health, or science. Websites should indicate the date the content was published or last updated.
- Outdated information can mislead or provide inaccurate conclusions if more recent research contradicts earlier findings.
- Example: A website discussing COVID-19 treatments that has not been updated since 2020 may not reflect recent advancements, making it less reliable for current information.
Security of the Website:
- Secure websites often indicate greater credibility. Look for “https://” in the URL as a sign of secure data handling.
- Trustworthy websites also typically have an “About Us” page that details their mission, authors, and organization’s background.
Cross-Referencing Sources:
- A good practice in evaluating websites is to cross-check information with other reputable sources. If multiple authoritative sites support the same conclusion, the information is more likely to be accurate.
- Use fact-checking websites such as Snopes (www.snopes.com) or Media Bias / Fact Check (mediabiasfactcheck.com) to verify claims and their sources that seem suspicious.
Avoiding Clickbait and Sensationalism:
- Clickbait headlines are designed to attract attention but often lack substance or reliable evidence. Reliable websites present headlines that are informative and factual rather than exaggerated or misleading.
- Example: Compare a “clickbait” headline like "5 Ways Coffee Will Instantly Cure All Health Problems!" with a more measured one such as "Research Shows Potential Health Benefits of Moderate Coffee Consumption." The latter is more likely to come from a reputable source.

Free City Radio Interview: Exploring the Inherent Sacrifices of Capitalism

Thu, 03 Oct 2024 13:37:35 +0000

I’m excited to share that I was recently featured on Free City Radio in an in-depth conversation about my research on the concept of human sacrifice in capitalism. The interview, now available on SoundCloud, is part of an interview series that examines the foundational realities of modern-day capitalism, specifically shaped by the notion of human sacrifice as a necessary element of economic systems.

Here’s a link to the interview: Author Keren Wang on Human Sacrifice as Inherent to Capitalism Today. During this conversation, I explore how this framework, traditionally viewed through ancient rituals, continues in modern contexts through the exploitation of labor, environmental destruction, and systemic injustices.

NCA 2020 Virtual Convention Presentation: Logographic Inventions of Violent Rituals

Sat, 31 Oct 2020 20:52:00 +0000

The ritual taking of things that are of human value, including the ritual killing of humans, has been continuously practiced for as long as human civilization itself has existed. In my presentation for the upcoming virtual 2020 National Communication Association's Annual Convention, I will highlight key findings from one of my ongoing historical archival projects, focusing on the rhetoric of human sacrifice as represented in Early Bronze Age China oracle bone scripts (c.1250 BC - 1046 BC). It will be delivered at the virtual paper session, "GPS: Changing Routes in Rhetoric's History" sponsored by the American Society for the History of Rhetoric on November 1st, 2020.

Presentation at 2018 PSU Social Thought Conference - "Three studies of ritual sacrifice in late-capitalism"

Tue, 01 May 2018 20:43:53 +0000

This presentation highlights a few key excerpts from my doctoral dissertation research:

“The ritual taking of things that are of human value, including the ritual killing of humans, has been continuously practiced for as long as human civilization itself has existed. Sacrifices in the form of state-organized rituals have been observed in many societies throughout history. Existing scholarship also observed an interdependent relationship between ritual sacrifice and the maintenance of political power in a broad set of historical cases, ranging from Shang dynasty China in 10th century BCE to the witch-hunts in early modern Europe. Sacrificial rituals of the past should not be considered fundamentally divorced from our modern world: whereas the formal elements of sacrifice of the past may no longer be recognizable, their substantive political functions do remain, with rhetorical overtones that carry into the politics of the present time. The goal for this project is to give due consideration to the politics of sacrificial rites across a broad set of political-theological traditions, hopefully paving the way to a new unifying understanding of sacrificial rhetorics. This research goal revolves around two primary research tasks that are intimately connected. The first is to provide a working interpretative framework for understanding the politics of ritual sacrifice – one that not only accommodates multidisciplinary, intersectional knowledge of ritual practices, but that can also be usefully employed in the integrated analysis of sacrificial rituals as political rhetoric under divergent historical and societal contexts. The second conducts a series of case studies that cuts across the wide variability of ritual public takings in late-capitalism.”

Ritualism and the Ethos of Chinese Legal Order: presentation at Penn State Law

Sat, 10 Jun 2017 16:39:47 +0000

“Ritualism and the Ethos of Chinese Legal Order,” presented at International Conference: New International Trade and Investment Rules between Globalization and Anti-Globalization, Penn State University, University Park, PA (April 22, 2017)

倬彼雲漢昭回于天

王曰於乎何辜今之人

天降喪亂饑饉薦臻

靡神不舉靡愛斯牲

圭璧既卒寧莫我聽

Majestic is that Milky Way, brightly afloat in the firmament of the heaven.

The King said, O! What crime is chargeable on us now?

That Heaven thus sends down death and disorder, unrelenting famine and hunger grapple us!

Law at the End of the Day: Keren Wang on "Religion in China: Historical and Legal Context" and Chinese-Vatican Relations

Sun, 20 Sep 2015 07:30:05 +0000

[embed]http://imgur.com/XhRs5nT[/embed]

The study of the relationship between the state and religion—especially organized and institutional religion originating in the West and Middle East–is grounded in an important and often overlooked premise. That premise is based on a very specific view of religion and a very historically contextualized understanding of the relationship between the state and religious institutions. Both are grounded in the primacy of the model of religious organization and of state-religion relations developed in the Middle East and Europe (and later spread elsewhere in the globe) centering around Judaism, Jewish state organization and its important evolution under Christianity and Islam, the religions that emerged from it. Much of the national and international discussion of the last several centuries has effectively centered on the way in each of these variants of so-called “Abrahamic” religions (and thier contests for domination within social, cultural and economic space) be manifested, and their relations with states legitimated. Other religious traditions are then folded into the master narrative of law-religion discourse, or treated as exceptions or variations within it.

Research on Keren Wang